高中语法大清点（专自新东方推荐高三的一定要看！）
近来，正在努力把一些语法知识总结集中归类，再借鉴以下各种权威参考，发到论坛上。为有语法疑难的同学服务，有用的好东西新东方的老师都是人中精英，非常精确，与老师如有冲突，此帖为准（高考经验）
希望同学们的语法888
[ Last edited by 狐狸大仙 on 2004-6-30 at 11:21 ] 名词性从句 （高二内容）
名词性从句是由if, whether, that 和各种疑问词充当连接词所引导的从句，其功同名词一样。
一．主语从句
主语从句是在复合句中充当主语的从句，通常放在主句谓语动词之前或由形式主语it代替，而本身放在句子末尾。
1. It 作形式主语和it引导强调句的比较
It 作形式主语代替主语从句，主要是为了平衡句子结构，主语从句的连接词没有变化。而it引导的强调句则是对句子某一部分进行强调，无论强调的是什么成分，都可用连词that。被强调部分指人是也可用who/whom。例如：
It is a pity that you didn’t go to see the film.
It doesn’t interest me whether you succeed or not.
It is in the morning that the murder took place.
It is John that broke the window.
2. 用it 作形式主语的结构
(1) It is ＋名词＋从句
It is a fact that … 事实是…
It is an honor that …非常荣幸
It is common knowledge that …是常识
(2) it is ＋形容词＋从句
It is natural that… 很自然…
It is strange that… 奇怪的是…
(3) it is ＋不及物动词＋从句
It seems that… 似乎…
It happened that… 碰巧…
(4) it ＋过去分词＋从句
It is reported that… 据报道…
It has been proved that… 已证实…
3. 主语从句不可位于句首的五种情况
(1) if 引导的主语从句不可居于复合句句首。
(2) It is said , (reported) …结构中的主语从句不可提前。例如：
It is said that President Jingo will visit our school next week. (right)
That President Jiang will visit our school next week is said. (wrong)
(3) It happens…, It occurs… 结构中的主语从句不可提前。例如：
It occurred to him that he failed in the examination. (right)
That he failed in the examination occurred to him. (wrong)
(4) It doesn’t matter how/whether …结构中的主语从句不可提前。例如：
It doesn’t matter whether he is wrong or not. (right)
Whether he is wrong or not doesn’t matter. (wrong)
(5) 含主语从句的复合句是疑问句时，主语从句不可提前。例如：
Is it likely that it will rain in the evening? (right)
Is that will rain in the evening likely? (wrong)
4. What 与that 在引导主语从句时的区别
What 引导主语从句时在句时在从句中充当句子成分，如主语．宾语．表语，而that 则不然。例如：
1) What you said yesterday is right.
2) That she is still alive is a consolation.
二．宾语从句
宾语从句就是在复合句中作宾语的名词性从句，通常放在主句谓语动词（及物动词）或介词之后。
1. 作动词的宾语
(1) 由that引导的宾语从句（that 通常可以省略）,例如：
I heard that be joined the army.
(2) 由what, whether (if) 引导的宾语从句，例如：
1) She did not know what had happened.
2) I wonder whether you can change this note for me.
(3) 动词＋间接宾语＋宾语从句。例如：
She told me that she would accept my invitation.
2. 作介词的宾语
例如：Our success depends upon how well we can cooperate with one another.
3. 作形容词的宾语
例如：I am afraid (that) I’ve made a mistake.
That 引导的从句常跟在下列形容词后作宾语：
Anxious, aware, certain, confident, convinced, determined, glad, proud, surprised, worried, sorry, thankful, ashamed, disappointed, annoyed, pleased, hurt, satisfied, content 等。也可以将此类词后的that 从句的看作原因状语从句。
4. It 可以作为形式宾语
It 不仅可以作为形式主语，还可以作为形式宾语而真正的宾语that 从句则放在句尾，特别是在带复合宾语的句子中。 例如：
We heard it that she would get married next month..
5. 后边不能直接跟that 从句的动词
这类动词有Allow, refuse, let, like, cause, force, admire, condemn, celebrate, dislike, love, help, take, forgive等。这类词后可以用不定式或动名词作宾语，但不可以用that引导的宾语从句。例如：
I admire their winning the match. (right)
I admire that they won the match. (wrong)
6. 不可用that从句作直接宾语的动词
有些动词不可用于“动词＋间接宾语＋that从句“结构中，常见的有Envy, order, accuse, refuse, impress, forgive, blame, denounce, advise, congratulate等。例如：
He impressed the manager as an honest man. (right)
He impressed the manager that he was an honest man. (wrong)
7. 否定的转移
若主句谓语动词为Think, consider, wuppose, believe, expect, fancy, guess, imagine等，其后的宾语从句若含有否定意义，一般要把否定词转移到主句谓语上，从句谓语用肯定式。例如：
I don’t think this dress fits you well.（我认为这件衣服不适合你穿。）
三．表语从句
表语从句在复合句中作表语的名词性从句，放在系动词之后，一般结构是“主语＋连系动词＋表语从句”。可以接表语从句的连系动词有be, look, remain, seem等。引导表语从句的that常可省略。另外，常用的还有the reason is that… 和It is because 等结构。例如：
1) The question is whether we can make good preparation in such a short time.
2) This is why we can’t get the support of the people
3) But the fact remains that we are behind the other classes.
4) The reason he is late for school is that he missed the early bus.
四．同位语从句
同位语从句就是在复合句中作名词的同位语的名词性从句。
1. 同位语从句的功能
同位语从句对于名词进一步解释，说明名词的具体内容，一般由that引导，例如：
1) The king’s decision that the prisoner would be set free surprised all the people.
2) The order that all the soldiers should stay still is given by the general.
2. 同位语在句子中的位置
同位语从句有时可以不紧跟在它所说明的名词后面，而是被别的词隔开。例如：
He got the news from Mary that the sports meeting was put off.
3. 同位语从句与定语从句的区别
(1) 定语从句中的that既代替先行词，同时以在从句中作某个成分（主语或宾语），而同位语从句中的that是连词，只起连接主句与从句的作用，不充当句中任何成分。
(2) 定语从句是形容词性的，其功能是修饰先行词，对先行词加以限定，描述定的性质或特征；同位语从句是名词性的，其功能是对名词进行补充说明。例如：
1) The news that he told me is that Tom would go abroad next year.（他告诉我的消息是汤姆明年将出国。）（第一个that引导的从句是定语从句，that在从句中作宾语）
2)The news that Tom would go abroad is told by him.（汤姆将出国的消息是他讲的。）（同位语从句，that在句中不作任何成分） 省略 （高二内容）
“省略”是英语学习中不可忽视的重要内容
省略是语言的一大特色。省略可以避免重复，突出重点，做到言简意赅。省略句在英语中十分普遍。英语的省略形式多种多样，从单词到一个句子的主谓结构都可以省略，并且还有一套省略规则。近年来高考试卷对省略规则进行了专项考查，如：
1 . The boy wanted to ride his bicycle in the street , but his mother told him ____ . (95年)
A . not to B . not to do C . not do it D . do not to
正确答案是A : not to = not to ride his bicycle in the street
2 . How beautifully she sings! I have never heard ____ . (96年)
A . the better voice B . a good voice C . the best voice D . a better voice
正确答案为D：a better voice = a better voice than hers
要做对以上题目，考生除了对考题的涉及到的其他语言点熟悉外，关键是要具备敏感地识别和正确运用省略句的能力。正确地识别省略句，弄清楚省略了什么，对正确理解句子和文章的意思具有重要的意义。
一、动词不定式中的省略
1 . 在下列情况中不定式符号 to 必须省略：
(1) 在 see , watch , notice , observe , look at , make , have , let , hear , listen to , feel 等动词后接不定式作宾语补足语时；
(2) 在“… do nothing but / except do…”的句型中不定式在介词 but 或 except 后作宾语时；
(3) 在 would rather 和 had better 后的不定式；
(4) 在几个不定式并列时，第二、第三个不定式。例如：
It’s quite necessary for us to read more and have more practice .
2 . 在 expect , forget , like , want , wish , try , have , need , used , ought , be able , be
going 等动词和动词词组后接的不定式中，不定式符号 to 后面的动词原形常省略。
(1) He often does things you wouldn‘t expect him to . (= you wouldn’t expect him to do)
(2) He had wanted to go there , but he forgot to . (= but he forgot to go there)
(3) A: Would you like to come and look at our workshop ?
B: Yes , I‘d like to . (= I’d like to go and look at your workshop)
(4) A: Do you play chess ?
B: Yes , I used to (= I used to play it) , but don‘t now .
(5) I shall not go unless I have to . (= useless I have to go)
(6) You didn’t work hard as you ought to . (= as you ought to have worked hard)
二、并列结构中的省略。这种省略一般是省去重复成分，突出不同部分。例如(括号中表示省略掉的部分，下同)：
(1) Mary has washed and (Mary has) dried the dishes .
(2) John should clean the wall and Peter (should clean) the floor .
(3) His suggestions made John happy , but (his suggestions made) Peter angry .
(4) John was the winner in 1898 , and Bob (was the winner) in 1907 .
(5) George will take the course , and Tod might (take the course) too .
三、比较结构中的省略。在连词 than 和 as 后的比较状语从句中常省去和前面主句中的重复成份，只保留作比较的成份。例如：
(1) His handwriting is much better than Li Ping‘s (handwriting) .
(2) The emperor cared more for clothes than (he cared) for anything else .
(3) You respect him as much as I (respect him) .
(4) You respect him as much as (you respect) me .
(5) They finished the work three days earlier than (they had been) expected (to finish it) .
四、连词引导的从句中的省略。这些连词有 if , as if , while , when , where , although , unless , what , whether 等。例如：
(1) Mistakes , if any , should be corrected . (if any = if there are any mistakes)
(2) Please come again , if possible . (if possible = if it is possible for you to come)
(3) Fill in the proper articles where necessary . (where necessary = where they are necessary)
(4) He won’t come , unless invited . (unless invited = unless he is invited)
(5) She opened her lips as if to say something . (as if to say something = as if she were going to say something)
五、倒装结构中的省略。例如：
(1) Were I you , I would not do it . (= If I were you , I …)
(2) We would have given you a phone call , had we known your telephone number . (= We would …if we had known…)
(3) We have finished our homework , so have they . (= … , and they have finished their homework , too)
(4) If you don‘t go to the concert , neither shall I . (= I shall not go to the concert either)
六、某些介词的省略。(这种省略也可以不省)例如：
prevent sb (from) doing ; stop sb (from) doing ; have trouble / difficulty (in) doing ; spend time / money (in) doing ; (with a) sword in (his) hand
七、宾语从句中连词 that 和定语从句中关系代词 that 等的省略。连词 that 引导宾语从句时常省略；关系代词 that , which , whom 在定语从句中作宾语时可以省略。
八、定冠词 the 的省略。the 在副词的最高级前一般省去；the 在表示独一无二的官衔或职位的名词前，而这个名词在句子中又是充当补足语或表语时，必须省去 the。如：Lincoln was elected president of the U . S .
九、句子的主谓结构的省略。
1 . 这种省略在对话中用得很多。读者只要仔细对照上下文，就不难看出省略了什么。例如：
(1) A: Is she your teacher ?
B: No , she is my brother’s . (= No , she isn‘t my teacher , but she is my brother’s . )
(2) A: Will it rain tomorrow ?
B: I hope not . (= I hope it won‘t rain tomorrow . )
(3) A: Where is it ?
B: Where you left it . (= It is where you left it . )
(4) A: When shall we start ?
B: Whenever you like . (= You may start whenever you like . )
(5) A: When will you write to him ?
B: Tomorrow , but not if I am too busy . (= I will write to him tomorrow , but I won’t write to him of I am too busy . )
2 . 有时句子省略出现在语段中就比较难识别。但正确的识别对完整理解文章的意义很重要。读者必须根据上下文的逻辑意义推敲句子的言外之意。 不知道大家那些语法有问题，是不是和我一样呢？
最近在弄反意疑问句，除了littlewing给我的，我这还有一套关于反意疑问句的东东，供大家参考：
反意疑问句
1) 陈述部分的主语是I，疑问部分要用 aren't I.
I'm as tall as your sister，aren't I?
2) 陈述部分的谓语是wish，疑问部分要用may +主语。
I wish to have a word with you, may I?
3) 陈述部分用 no, nothing, nobody, never, few, seldom, hardly, rarely, little等否定含义的词时，疑问部分用肯定含义。
The Swede made no answer, did he / she?
Some plants never blown (开花), do they ?
4) 含有ought to 的反意疑问句，陈述部分是肯定的，疑问部分用shouldn't / oughtn't +主语。
He ought to know what to do, oughtn't he? / shouldn't he?
5) 陈述部分有have to +v. (had to + v.)，疑问部分常用don't +主语（didn't +主语）。
We have to get there at eight tomorrow, don't we?
6) 陈述部分的谓语是used to 时，疑问部分用didn't +主语或 usedn't +主语。
He used to take pictures there, didn't he? / usedn't he?
7) 陈述部分有had better + v. 疑问句部分用hadn't you?
You'd better read it by yourself, hadn't you?
8) 陈述部分有would rather +v.，疑问部分多用 wouldn't +主语。
He would rather read it ten times than recite it, wouldn't he?
9) 陈述部分有You'd like to +v. 疑问部分用wouldn't +主语。
You'd like to go with me, wouldn't you?
10) 陈述部分有must 的疑问句，疑问部分根据实际情况而定。
He must be a doctor, isn't he?
You must have studied English for three years, haven't you? / didn't you?
He must have finished it yesterday, didn't he?
11) 感叹句中，疑问部分用be +主语。
What colours, aren't they?
What a smell, isn't it?
12) 陈述部分由neither… nor, either… or 连接的并列主语时，疑问部分根据其实际逻辑意义而定。
Neither you nor I am engineer, are we?
13) 陈述部分主语是指示代词或不定代词everything, that, nothing, this, 疑问部分主语用it。
Everything is ready, isn't it?
14) 陈述部分为主语从句或并列复合句，疑问部分有三种情况：
a. 并列复合句疑问部分，谓语动词根据邻近从句的谓语而定。
Mr. Smith had been to Beijing for several times, he should have been in China now, shouldn't he?
b. 带有定语从句，宾语从句的主从复合句，疑问部分谓语根据主句的谓语而定：
He is not the man who gave us a talk, is he?
He said he wanted to visit Japan, didn't he?
c. 上述部分主句谓语是think, believe, expect, suppose, imagine等引导的定语从句，疑问部分与宾语从句相对应构成反意疑问句。
I don't think he is bright, is he?
We believe she can do it better, can't she?
15) 陈述部分主语是不定代词everybody, anyone, somebody, nobody, no one等，疑问部分常用复数they，有时也用单数he。
Everyone knows the answer, don't they? (does he?)
Nobody knows about it, do they? (does he?)
16) 带情态动词dare或need的反意疑问句，疑问部分常用 need (dare ) +主语。
We need not do it again, need we ?
He dare not say so, dare you?
当dare, need 为实义动词时，疑问部分用助动词do + 主语。
She doesn't dare to go home alone, does she?
17) 省去主语的祈使句的反意疑问句，疑问部分用will you。
Don't do that again, will you?
Go with me, will you / won't you ?
注意： Let's 开头的祈使句，后用shall we?
Let us 开头的祈使句，后用will you?
Let's go and listen to the music, shall we?
Let us wait for you in the reading-room, will you ?
18) 陈述部分是"there be"结构的，疑问部分用there省略主语代词。
There is something wrong with your watch, isn't there?
There will not be any trouble, will there?
19) 否定前缀不能视为否定词，其反意疑问句仍用否定形式。
It is impossible, isn't it?
He is not unkind to his classmates, is he?
20) must在表"推测"时，根据其推测的情况来确定反意疑问句。
He must be there now, isn't he?
It must be going to rain tomorrow, won't it?
希望对大家有所帮助！！！ 分词
分词是动词的又一种非谓语形式，主要分为现在分词（ing为词尾）和过去分词（主要以ed结尾），他们在句中可作定语、状语或表语。
由于作表语的分词往往被视为形容词的用法，其用法比较简单，这里只着重介绍前两种用法如：
exciting news (激动人心的消息), charming girl(迷人的女孩),
promising work(有希望的作品), known criminal(臭名昭著的罪犯),
broken bottle（破碎的瓶子）
考点一 现在分词
现在分词和过去分词的主要区别在于：现在分词表主动意义；过去分词表被动意义。
现在分词较过去分词形式灵活，除部分能接宾语之外，可有被动形式(being done)和完成式(having done, having been done), 当然being done和having been done也可理解成过去分词变形为进行式
1. 现在分词作定语
现在分词常接在名词之后作定语，经常可与定语从句替换
如：the man sitting behind me, 相当于：the man who is sitting behind me
the kids running about in the garden, 相当于：
the kids who are running about in the garden
单个的分词作定语可放在被修饰词之前，如：the sleeping baby, a running nose
改错题中若出现名词之后直接接动词，且之间是主谓关系，但不是句子主谓语，此处必定有错，可改为现在分词作定语
例题：
(1)
The boiled point of any liquid is determined by the pressure of the surrounding gases.
A B C D
答案：A
应改为：boiling.
解释：沸点的英文表达应该是boiling point. 类似的表达如: boiling water(沸水); boiled表示已完成的状态, 如boiled water意为白开水, 即已沸腾过的水
(2)
The slide rule uses sliding scales with marks ---- numbers and their logarithms.
(A) representing
(B) represented
(C) are represented
(D) they are representing
答案：A
解释：空格前是句子的主谓成分，空格处需要marks的定语，C, D可先排除；B是被动式，无法接宾语numbers; 因此A正确，是现在分词作定语
2. 现在分词作状语
分词还可在句中作状语，可放在句首、句中或句尾。现在分词作状语时，通常都表示主语正在进行的动作/伴随动作或者表示原因。
1．现在分词短语可以作时间状语，相当于when, while, as soon as等所引导的从句
如：Hearing the news, he couldn't help crying.
= When he heard the news, he couldn't help crying.
2．现在分词短语也可以表示原因，代替由since, as等所引导的从句
如：Not knowing what to do about the situation, she turned to him for help.
=Since she didn't know what to do about the situation, she turned to him for help.
Being so poor in those days, we couldn't afford to go to school.
=As we were so poor in those days, we couldn't afford to go to school.
3．如果分词表示的动作发生在主句动作之前，那么此时分词就需要用完成形式
如：Having finished the work, she went to the park.
=After she had finished the work, she went to the park.
特别注意：分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致
如: Seeing from the moutain, the ocean is emrald green.
此句是一个错误的句子, 因为根据分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致的原则, seeing的逻辑主语也应该是the ocean, 而the ocean是不能自己seeing的, 应改为Seen from the mountain.
例题：
(1)
Snow aids farmers by keeping heat in the lower ground levels, thereby ---- from freezing.
(A) to save the seeds
(B) saving the seeds
(C) which saves the seeds
(D) the seeds saved
答案：B
解释：thereby一词习惯上接现在分词作句子的结果状语，只有B符合要求
考点二 过去分词
1. 过去分词作定语
与现在分词类似，过去分词作定语常可和定语从句替换, 通常表示被动的含义.
如：a theory derived from rich experience
= a theory that has been derived from rich experience
a gas composed of four chemical elements
= a gas that is composed of four chemical elements
单个分词可放在被修饰词之前，如：distinguished guests, unexpected trouble
改错题中常考现在分词和过去分词的混用，关键看被修饰词和分词代表的动作是主动还是被动关系。
例如: boiling water (沸腾的水，表示正在沸腾)； boiled water(开水， 表示已经烧开)
2. 同源现在分词和过去分词做定语的区别
有时一个动词词尾分别加上-ing和-ed就构成了一组同源现在分词和过去分词, 这样的例子在英语里很多, 如: interesting/interested, exciting/excited, disappointing/disappointed等, 这些由动词变化而来的分词已经被人们视为形容词了. 但是, 同源现在分词和过去分词做定语时有什么区别呢?
现在分词通常表示某个事物的特性, 通常用来修饰某事或某物, 含有“使人(令人)感到…”的意思, 如: an interesting novel, a confusing question等;
过去分词通常表示人的感受或状态, 意思是“…的…”, 如: a worried look (焦虑的神情)
试比较: an interesting boy (一个有趣的男孩 - 让人觉得很有趣)
an interested boy (一个产生了兴趣的男孩
同样, 当同源现在分词和过去分词做表语时, 在意思上也存在同样的区别, 如:
The results are very disappointing. (结果很让人失望)
We are very disappointed at the results. (我们对这样的结果很失望)
例题：
(1)
The University of Georgia, ----in 1785, was the first state supported university in the United States.
(A) chartered
(B) was chartered
(C) it was chartered
(D) to be chartered
答案：A
解释：本句主谓结构完整, 缺少的是主语的修饰成分, A构成过去分词短语作定语；B C 的动词结构与原句谓语冲突; D 不定式一般表示即将发生的动作, 与in 1785不符
(2)
A patent gives inventors exclusive rights to their inventions for a fix period of time.
A B C D
答案：C
应改为：fixed
解释：fix是动词，不能修饰名词period, 依句意改为分词fixed, “一段固定时间”
(3)
Closed plane figures like the square or the equilateral triangle can be grouped into a class ----polygons.
(A) called
(B) to call
(C) is called
(D) call as
答案：A
解释：此句主谓完整, 句中又无连词, 需填的只可能是非谓语成分, A 是过去分词短语作定语, 等效于which is called, 符合题意. C D 属谓语结构, 与原句谓语冲突; B 不定式表用途或目的, 意思不通
3. 过去分词作状语
过去分词也可放在句首、句中、句尾作句子的状语，常表示事件发生的背景或原因，
如：Seen from far away, the islands look like a chain of pearls in the midst of the lake.
Defeated in the final, the team gathered to analyze its technical disadvantages.
特别注意：分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致. 选择题中, 经常要求考生在分词状语部分填入合适的过去分词或现在分词. 到底选择哪种分词, 考生可以采取这样的作题方法: 首先根据“分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致”的原则确定状语部分的主语, 再判断这个主语和分词是什么关系, 若是主动关系则应该用现在分词, 若是被动关系则要用过去分词.
例题：
(1)
---- in 1635, the Boston Latin School is the oldest public school in the United States.
(A) Founded
(B) Founding
(C) To found
(D) Having founded
答案：A
解释：分词部分的逻辑主语也应当是the Boston Latin School, 它和found之间是被动关系, 所以空格处应填入过去分词
(2)
Almost destroy by fire in 1814, the White House was rebuilt and enlarged over
A B C
the next three year.
D
答案：A
应改为：Almost destroyed
解释：by是被动式的标志词, 动词destroy应用过去分词destroyed, 这样既表被动又构成句子的状语
考点三 独立主格结构
独立主格结构是介于分词和主谓句之间的非谓语形式，对于分词来讲其逻辑主语必须和句子的主语保持一致，而独立主格则在很大程度上克服了这一局限性
1、主要特征
(1) 独立主格是含有主语的分词结构，分词与主语间是主谓关系，
基本形式为：主语+现在分词或过去分词
如：his heart bleeding
the baby crying
the project completed
The school being over, the street was full of the students.
= When the school was over, the street was full of the students.
(2)切记独立主格不等同于主谓结构，
比较：my mind wandering (独立主格)；
My mind was wandering (主谓结构)
(3)独立主格的主语和句子主语不一致
如：(With) His mouth filled with water, he couldn't utter a word. (独立主格)
对于分词来讲其逻辑主语必须和句子的主语保持一致:
Filling his mouth with water, he couldn't utter a word.
2. 在句子中的作用
独立主格结构通常在句中表示时间、条件，原因、伴随状态等
如：The film being over, we had a stroll on the nearby street. (时间)
Weather permitting, I will go fishing with my family. (条件)
Time pressing, they had to work overtime. (原因)
The leaves rustling in the breeze, I roamed on the country road. (伴随)
例题：
(1)
----modern offices becoming more mechanized, designers are attempting to personalize them with warmer, less severe interiors.
(A) If
(B) But
(C) With
(D)Once
答案：C
解释：句中主干完整, 主语是designers, 谓语是are attempting, 之后是不定式构成的宾语. 空白后 becoming 采取分词形式, modern offices是becoming的逻辑主语, 因此可确定需填入的词会与原句构成独立主格结构, 而不是从句, A B D可一次性排除, 其实此句除去空白处, 已是完整的句子, 类似句子如: The man entered the room, his hair flying in the air.
注意: 表示伴随状态的独立主格结构通常可以由with引导, 如本例题.
考点一 动名词作宾语
1． 许多动词不能接不定式作宾语，同时又需要动宾结构作宾语，此时动名词便可大显身手了，如：enjoy singing（喜欢唱歌）,
avoid looking me in the eye
miss crashing into the tree
Fancy meeting you here! (想不到在这里见到你了)
常接动名词doing做宾语的动词有：
enjoy, mind, delay, avoid, consider, deny, miss, escape, fancy, suggest, insist等
另外, 在一些固定用法当中, 也需要用动名词做宾语, 如:
can't help doing, it's no use doing, it's worth doing, be busy doing, feel like doing等.
2. 有的动词既可以用动名词作宾语，也可以用不定式，两者意思区别不大, 如: like, begin, start, love, learn等,
如: She began playing piano when she was five.
She began to play piano when she was five.
但是对于remember, forget, try等动词来说，接不定式和接动名词意义不同, 如:
How many people remember listening to the radio broadcast, "The War of the Worlds"
(还有多少人记得听过无线广播-- The War of the Worlds) (表示已经听过了)
I remember to listen to the radio broadcast, "The War of the Worlds"
(我想起来要听广播-- The War of the Worlds) (表示还没有听过)
We must try to work this problem out. (我们必须尽力把这道题做出来)（表示努力，设法）
We can try doing it. (我们可以试着做它) （表示尝试）
动名词作介词宾语的情况更加普遍
例题：
(1)
A mortgage enables a person to buy property without paying for it outright; thus more
A B C
people are able to enjoy to own a house.
D
答案：D
应改为：owning
解释：enjoy doing是固定用法，必须用动名词作enjoy的宾语
考点二 动名词作主语、定语或表语 和名词相仿，动名词可作句子的主语、表语或名词的定语
如：Meeting you is my pleasure.
His job is driving a bus.
The opening ceremony will begin in five minutes.
在简单句中, 只能有一个主语和一个谓语, 考试时经常会出现在一个简单句中主语部分不全或干脆没有主语部分, 需要考生将句子补全, 这时要注意的是主语部分只能是名词短语, 动名词短语或不定式短语, 而不能是动词短语或句子, 如:
例题：
(1)
---- by transferring the blame to others is often called scapegoating.
(A) Eliminate problems
(B) The eliminated problems
(C) Eliminating problems
(D) Problems are eliminated
答案：C
解释：此句只是主语部分不完整，可排除A,D; B与句意不符，只有C动名词词组合适，与scapegoating相呼应。注意by后面的短语表示一种方式、手段，而不是被动式的施动者
(2)
---- raw materials into useful products is called manufacturing.
(A)Transform
(B) Transforming
(C) Being transformed
(D) When transforming
答案：B
解释：此句is之前是句子的主语，之后是谓语，空格处需要一个能接宾语raw materials的名词性结构，这正是动名词所具备的特点，因此答案非B莫属
注意：有时需要在动名词之前加上物主代词或名词，表示动名词的逻辑主语
如： Would you mind my turning off the radio?
I'm rather disappointed at Helen's putting on airs at the party.
She remembered Tom owing her ten dollars.
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倒装 （Inversion） （高二内容）
英语的基本语序是“主语+谓语”。如果将谓语的全部或一部分放在主语之前，这种语序称为“倒装”。
一）所谓倒装也就是谓语动词出现在主语之前的现象。其中谓语动词全部放在主语之前的叫作全部或完全倒装；把谓语中的助动词或情态动词放在主语之前的则称为部分倒装。
二）倒装的一些结构：
*由here，there，now, then等副词引起的句子中，动词往往是come，go，需用全部倒装。如：
There goes the bell!
Now comes your turn.。
但当主语为代词时，不用倒装结构。
Here they are.
**用在以so，neither，nor引起的缩略答语中，
即So do sb./ Neither(nor) do sb.结构。
***only + 副词/介词短语/状语从句时
1） Only when he reached school did he realize that he left his textbook at home.
2） Only then did she see her mother.
3） Only in this way can we improve our English.
****not only…but(also)和not until置于句首时，如：
Not only does he play football well, but he also draws a good picture.（倒装在主句）
Not until he lost his health did he realize what good health meant.（倒装在主句）
*****表否定意义的状语（包括副词、连词、状语从句）放在句首时。如：
hardly /never /not /scarcely/ seldom/little
1) Never shall I forget the day when I met Mr.Wang in the countryside.
2)As she is busy writing an important article, seldom does she watch Tv.
3)Hardly does the hibernating animal make any movement and need any food in winter.
4)Little did I expect to meet him on such an occasion.
******副词out， in， away等置于句首时。需用全部倒装。如：
Out jumped a tiger from behind a rock.
In comes an old man with a long white beard.
但当主语是代词时勿需倒装。
Out they went into the forest.
Away they rushed when they saw some enemy soldiers running along.
*******当地点状语置于句首时，亦需倒装结构(全部倒装)。如：
At the corner of the street stands a newly-opened tea house.
On the wall hang two pictures.
********在虚拟语气结构中，当if省略时需倒装。
If he had known about it , he would have come to the meeting yesterday.
= Had he known about it, he would have come to the meeting yesterday.
**********在so + adj/adv + that…结构中，当so + adj/adv置于句首时，需要用倒装结构。如：
So loudly did he speak that everybody could hear him clearly.
Still less/more 接从句时，需要倒装。如：
He cannot read, still less can he write.
他不会看书，更不用说写了。
He repairs the machine, still more does he set it to pieces.
他会修机器，更会拆机器。
*在Scarcely / Hardly…when和No sooner… than的结构中。如：
Hardly had I got back when I started cooking.
No sooner had we sat down than he found it was time to go.
**在祝愿句使用倒装。如：
1)Long live the friendship between us.
2)May you all have a pleasant time on the trip.
*** 在as引导的让步状语从句中
1） Tired as he was , he worked late into the night.
2） Child as he was ,he was very brave. 限制和非限制定语从句 （定语从句为高二内容）
1 关系词的差别：限制性定语从句一般用who whose that which when where why……非限制性定语从句不可以用that why来引导。
Yesterday he bought a new bike，which was made in Shanghai．（which不可换用that）昨天他买了一辆新自行车，这自行车是上海产的。
He didn't give the reason，which explained his absence from the meeting held last week．
（which不可换用why，因为which在定语从句中作主语，而why只能在定语从句中作状语）
2关系词的省略不同
在限制性定语从句中，当关系代词在定语从句中作宾语或表语时，在口语中可以省略，关系副词有时也可省略。而非限制性定语从句中的关系代词或关系副词不可省略。
I still remember the days we spent together during the picnic．我仍然记得我们在野餐时一起度过的日子。（we前省略了that ／which）
Our country is not the one（that）she used to be．我们的国家已不再是昔日的国家了。（that在定语从句中作表语）
His brother，whom Tom often talks about with me，is going to London next week．汤姆常常和我谈起的他的哥哥下周要去伦敦。（whom不可省略）
3从句的作用不同
限制性定语从句是对先行词起到修饰限制作用，是先行词在意义上不可缺少的定语，一旦省略，主句的意思就无法理解。而非限制性定语从句则是对一个概念清楚的先行词进行附加说明，若将其去掉，主句的意思仍然完整。例如：
In the dark street，there wasn't a single person to whom she could turn for help．（MET 92）在这条黑暗的街道上，没有一个她可以向其求助的人。
Alice received an invitation from her boss， which came as a surprise．艾丽斯收到了她的老板的一份请柬，这真是件令人惊奇的事情。
4从句的意义有所不同
先行词是普通名词时，限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句的意义有所不同。例如：
She has a daughter who is a teacher．她有一个当教师的女儿。（她可能不只一个女儿）
She has a daughter，who is a teacher．她有一个女儿，是当教师的。（她只有一个女儿）
5从句所修饰的先行词有所不同
限制性定语从句的先行词通常是名词、代词或词组；而非限制性定语从句的先行词除了名词、代词外，还可以是个句子。例如：
This is the best film that I have ever seen．这是我曾经看过的电影中的最好的一部。
They talked a lot about the things and persons that they could remember．他们谈论了一些他们能记起的人和事情。
He won the first prize in the contest， which was more than we expected．他在比赛中得了一等奖，这一点真出乎我们所料。
6标点的运用有所不同
限制性定语从句一般紧跟在先行词后，其后不可用逗号分开；而非限制性定语从句也常放在先行词后，但必须用逗号和主句分开。例如：
Who is the girl that standing under the tree？站在树下的那个女孩是谁？
He is a teacher of much knowledge，from whom much can be learned．他是一个学识渊博的老师，从他那儿可以学到许多东西。
7从句的语序有所不同
限制性定语从句通常用自然语序；而非限制性定语从句大多数情况下用陈述语序，少数情况下可以用倒装语序。例如：
To get the job started，all that we need is your help．为了使这项工作开工，我们所需要的是你的帮助。
They came to a small house，in front of which sat a boy．他们来到一所房子处，房前坐着一个男孩。
In the distance there is a hill，on the top of which stands a white tower．在远处有一座山，山顶上耸立着一座白塔。
8英译汉时有所不同
译成汉语时，往往把限制性定语从句的内容置于先行词之前；而非限制性定语从句和主句往往翻译成两个分句。例如：
Which is the machine that we used last Sunday？上星期天我们用的那台机器是哪一台？
The concert，which was held last week， was a great success．那场音乐会是上周举行的，获得了巨大的成功。
He may be late，in which case we ought to wait for him．他可能来晚。要是那样的话我们就等等他。
9as，which引导的非限制性定语从句的差别
as引导的非限制性定语从句可以位于句中或句末，而which引导的非限制性定语从句只能位于句末；as译为“正如，正像”，而 which译为“这一点，这件事”；上下文语意一致时用as，不一致时用which。例如：
He has got the first place in the contest，which is known to us all．他在这次竞赛中得了第一名，这一点大家都知道了。
练习：
1．Qingdao is a beautiful city，____________ I'll pay a six-day visit．
A．which B．where C．for which D．that
2．It was an exciting moment for these football fans this year，____________ for the first time in years their team won the World Cup．（NMET 2000春季高考）
A．that B．while C．this D．when
3．They have a son and two daughters，live in the city．
A．all of them B．both of them
C．everyone of whom D．all of whom
4．He lived in London for three months，during time he learned some English．
A．when B．that C．which D．same
5．A person with his head in the clouds is a dreamer ____________ mind is not in the real world．
A．whose B．that C．of whom D．which
6．China is the birthplace of kites，____________ kiteflying spread to Japan，Korea，Thailand and India．
A．from that B．from here C．from there D．from where
7．Luxun，for ____________ life was hard，wrote a lot of famous novels．
A．whom B．whose C．who D．which
8．They stood at the window，____________ they could see ____________ was happening in the street．
A．where；all
B．which；all
C．from where；what
D．from which；that
9．____________ is quite natural，a beginner can't read books written in English very quickly．
A．What B．As C．Which D．It
答案;
1—5 BDDCA 6—9 DACB
词帖内容为teacher总结~ 按照名词的单复数形式，抽象名词可分以下四种情况：
一、只能用作不可数名词的抽象名词。如：
advice（建议），information（信息），happiness（幸福），news（新闻），progress（进步），damage（损坏），work（工作），honour（荣誉），harm（伤害）， courage（勇气），health（健康），wealth（财富），brav- ery（勇敢），importance（重要性），good（善良）等。
二、既可用作不可数名词，又可用作可数名词，且二者词义不发生本质变化。如：
hope／hopes（希望），fear／fears（恐惧），science／sciences（科学），belief／beliefs（信念），success／successes（成功），study／studies（学习）等。
三、只能用作可数名词的抽象名词。如：
idea（想法），mistake（错误），situation（局势），answer（回答），case（情况），remark（意见；评论），event（事件），statement（声明）等。
四、只以复数形式出现的抽象名词，其单数往往另有涵义。如：
goods（商品），manners（礼貌），riches（财富），wishes（祝愿），congratulations（祝贺），letters（文学），spirits（情绪）， thanks（感谢）等。
注意：当我们说“advice，damage，honour，good等抽象名词只能用作不可数名词”是指它们作本义时，只能用作不可数名词，但是它们以复数形式出现时，其词义就会发生根本性的变化。如：
抽象名词的抽象意义
experience（经验）
interest（兴趣；关心）
good（美德）
spirit（精神）
advice（建议）
youth（青春）
damage（损坏）
抽象名词的转义（具体意义）
experiences（经历）
interests（利益）
goods（商品）
spirits（情绪）
advices（消息；行情）
youths（年青人）
damages（赔偿金）
另外，surprise，success，pleasure等抽象名词用作本义时是不能与不定冠词连用的。但是，当这些抽象名词用来指一个具体的实例（如一次；一阵；一番；一种等）时，就可以与不定冠词连用了，带有修饰语时，尤其如此。在这种用法下，这些名词之中有些可以有复数形式，表示“多个；多次；多种”的意思。 非谓语动词 （高二内容）
动词的非谓语形式:
把动词的形式稍做变化，可以起到名词、形容词或副词的作用，在句中充当主语、宾语、表语、补语、状语等各种成分。动词的这些变化被称为非谓语形式。也就是说，除了谓语之外，其它成份都能充当。动词的非谓语形式有三种：
（1）动词不定式：to study（to+动词原形）
（2）分词：studying （现在分词）
studied（过去分词）
（3）动名词：studying （形式与现在分词相同，相当于名词）
动词的非谓语形式不随主语的人称和数的变化而变化；它仍具有动词的一些特征，可以带宾语、状语等构成短语另外它也有时态的不同变化以及语态的变化。
动词不定式的结构和功能
一般结构：to +动词原形
时态的变化：
一般现在时：to write （to be written 被动语态）
现在进行时：to be writing
现在完成时：to have written
完成进行时：to have been writing.
动词不定式能起到名词、形容词、副词的作用，充当谓语以外的各种成分，是最神通广大的一种非谓语形式。
作用:主语 宾语 表语 定语 状语 补语 都是可以的！
动词不定式功能分类：
（一）作主语：
eg.
1. To learn English is not an easy thing. 学习英语不是一件容易事。
2. It is our duty to learn the knowledge well. 好好学习知识是我们的责任。
（注：it是形式主语，无真正的含义，而动词不定式放在后面是真正的主语）
（二）作宾语
eg.
1. He wants to visit Nanjing. 他要参观南京。
2. The teacher decided to give a speech at that time. 在那时，老师决定做一个演讲。
（三）做宾语补语（也就是复合宾语的第二部分）
eg.
1. I expect you to write to me. （我）盼望你（给我）来信。
2. I asked him to show me his new dictionary . 我要他给我看看他的新词典。
（注：在这两句中，代词you , him 分别是句中的宾语，而后面的不定式补充说明宾语的动作、行为，做宾语补语）
（四）作表语（即在系动词后面的部分）
eg.
1. To see is to believe. 眼见为实。（百闻不如一见）
2. That man seems to be a college graduate . 那个人像个大学毕业生。（seem是系动词，意为“看上去”）
（五）作定语
eg.
1. Is there anything （for us）to eat ? 有什么吃的东西吗？
2. He is a man to depend on . 他是个可以信任的人。（on不能省）
（六）做状语：
eg.
1. My little sister is too young to go to school . （结果状语）我的小妹太小而不能上学。
2. He opened the door for her to come in . （目的状语）他打开门让她进来。
3. I’m sorry to say that the work is not well done . （原因状语）我很遗憾的说，这件工作做得不好。
要注意的问题
（一）感官动词和使役动词后面的不定式不加to.
感官动词，如：hear , see , notice , feel , watch 等
使役动词，如：make , let , have （要、叫、使）等，后面不加to.
help后面的动词不定式可加可不加to.
eg.
1. Professor Wang let his assistant leave early enough to catch the last bus .
王教授让他的助手早走，好赶上末班车。
2. I heard Mary cry. 我听见玛丽哭了。
3. We watched them play football. 我们观看他们踢足球。
（二）动词不定式的否定式：在to前面加not , 即为not to do sth.
eg.
1. The teacher told him not to be late again. 老师叫他别再迟到了。
2. My father decided not to take up the job. 我父亲决定不干这个工作。
（三）带疑问词的动词不定式：疑问词＋to do sth.
eg.
1. Can you tell me where to get the scarf ? 你能告诉我哪里能买到这条围巾吗？
（注：Where to go 是动词不定式做宾语）
2. Mary did know what to say when Mr Hopkins was displeased with her.
霍普金斯先生对玛丽表示不满时，玛丽不知该说什么。
^-^“疑问词＋不定式”结构通常用于下列动词之后：tell , teach , know , wonder , learn , show , find out , ask , understand 等。
（四）做简短回答或避免不必要的重复，动词不定式可以省略to后面的动词，在make , let , see , hear等动词后，to也可以省略。
eg.
1. －Did you go to see the Great Wall ? 你去过长城吗？
－No , I wanted to ↓, but there wasn’t time. 我想去但没时间。
（此处省略，go to see it ，以免重复）
2. －Did Mary go to the party ? 玛丽去参加晚会了吗？
－No , her mother didn’t let her. 不，她母亲不让她去。
（此处省略（to go to the party））
（五）动词不定式的逻辑主语：动词不定式是非谓语动词的一种，不能做谓语，因此在语法上不能有主语。但是由于它们表示的是动作，在意思上是可以有主语的，这个主语称为逻辑主语（the Logical Subject）。
逻辑主语有时可以是句子的主语或宾语，如果都不是，则需要在这一逻辑主语前加介词for.
可以比较下面的一堆句子：
eg.
1. I want to open the door. 我要开门。
（to open的逻辑主语是句子的主语）
2. I want him to open the door. 我要他打开门。
（to open的逻辑主语是宾语him，开门的动作由他发生的）
3. I open the door for her to come in . 我开了门让她进来。
（动词不定式的逻辑主语是her，发出了“to come in”的动作，因此必须在前面加for.）
（六）除了ought to （应该）、have to （必须，不得不）、be to ,seem to 之外，其他的助动词和情态动词后面的不定式，均不带to，直接加动词原形“be to ”结构含有事先安排、预定的计划，有劝告、指示、命令的意味
eg.
1. The guests are to return next Monday. 客人们定于下周一回来
2. You are not to offend anybody. 你不得冒犯任何人。
（七）有些动词后面只可接不定式，有：decide , desire （渴望），expect , hope , mean（打算），pretend （假装），promise（发誓），refuse等有些动词可接不定式，也可以接动名词
有attend , begin , start , intend , love , like , hate , prefer , remember , forget , regret , stop , want , need , try 等。
它们接动词不定式和动名词时，有的意义不变，有的意义则区别很大哦~~
（八）动词不定式的完成式：“to have done”
主要体现它所表示的动作发生在谓语动词的动作之前
eg.
1. I am sorry to have kept you waiting.
很抱歉让你久等了。（keep you waiting 在先，be sorry在后）
*但在plan , hope , except , should / would like 等词之后，表示没有实现。
eg.
1. He planned to have gone abroad. 他原计划出国。（但事实上他没有去，没有实现）
相当于He planned to go abroad , but he didn’t.
2. I would like to have had you help . 我本想能得到你的帮助。（实际上我却没有得到）
（九）动词不定式的进行式：“to be doing”
表示主要动作发生时，不定式所表示的动作正在进行。
eg.
1. They seem to be talking about something important. 他们似乎正在谈一些重要的事情。
2. The two weavers pretended to be working hard. 那两个织布匠假装在努力干活。
（十）动词不定式的被动语态：“to be done” 定冠词常用于以下几种情况：
①“特指”某个或某些人或物前。例如：
The books on the desk are mine．书桌上的书是我的。
“双熟悉”指谈话双方都熟悉的人或事物前。例如：
Where is the teacher？老师在哪里？
②上文已经提到的人或事物前。例如：
I can see a cat．The cat is Lucy's．我能看见一只猫。那只猫是露茜的。
③世界上独一无二的事物前。例如：
The earth goes around the sun．地球围绕太阳转。
④序数词或形容词最高级前。例如：
September is the ninth month of the year．九月是一年中的第九个月。
Mike is the tallest of the three boys．迈克是三个男孩中最高的一个。
⑤由普通名词构成的专有名词前。例如：the Great Wall（长城），the People's Park（人民公园）等。
⑥一些习惯用语中或乐器前。例如：in the day（在白天），play the piano（弹钢琴）等。
不用冠词的几种情况：
①名词前已有作定语用的this，that，these，those，my，your，his，her，our，their，some等限定词。例如：this
eraser，her pencil-box，some boxes，these women等。
②泛指的不可数名词前一般不用冠词。例如：meat，rice，water，bread，tea，milk，juice等。
③表示学科的名词前一般不用冠词。例如：Chinese，maths，English，physics，history等。
④在三餐饭和球类运动前一般不用冠词。例如：have breakfast／lunch／supper，play
basketball／football／volleyball／table tennis／tennis／pingpong等。
⑤复数名词表示泛指时不用冠词。例如：
His parents are both workers．他父母都是工人。
The people in the room are doctors．房间里那些人是医生。
⑥季节、节日、星期、月份前不用冠词。例如：autumn，winter，Teachers' Day，Children's
Day，Sunday，Wednesday，February，October等。
⑦表示颜色、语种和国家的名词前不用冠词。例如：white，brown，French（法语），Japanese（日语），Australia，America（美国）等。
⑧表示称呼语的名词之前以及职务、头衔的名词后也跟有名词时不用冠词。例如：
What's wrong，Granny？老奶奶，怎么啦？
Doctor Green is a scientist．格林博士是位科学家。
turn的特殊用法,后面不加冠词直接加职业,和它相同此用法的还有select 英语句子中，主语的“人称”和“数”要限制，决定谓语动词的形式变化，这就叫“主谓一致”关系。
它通常依据三项原则：
1）语法一致； 2）意义一致； 3）就近一致。
【语法一致原则】
I .主语的“人称”决定谓语动词的形式。e.g.
①I love / She loves music . 我/ 她爱好音乐。
②Are your mother a worker ? (误)你母亲是工人吗？
Is your mother a worker ?(正)（主语your mother 是单数第三人称）
II .主语的“数”决定谓语动词的形式。
1.“不可数名词、可数名词单数、单数代词、不定式（短语）、动名词（短语）”或“从句”等作主语，用单数谓语形式。e.g.
①The work is important . 这项工作重要。
②To serve the country is our duty . 为祖国服务是我们的义务。
③How and why he left was a sad story . 他离开的经过和原因是一段伤心的经历。
2. 复数的名词、代词一般接复数谓语形式。e.g.
①The children are taken good care of . 孩子们得到很好的照料。
②They have gone to Chengdu . 他们去成都了。
II. 以“and ”或“both… and”连接的并列主语：
1.通常作复数用 。e.g.
①Plastics and rubber never rot . 塑料和橡胶从不腐烂。
②What he says and what he does do not agree. 他言行不一致。
③Both Tom and I are fond of medicine . 我和汤姆都喜欢医学。
2. 如果并列主语指的是“同一个”人（事、物、抽象概念），作单数用。e.g.
①The worker and writer has come . 这位工人作家来了。
②A cart and horse was seen in the distance . 远处能看见有一套马车。
③Truth and honesty is the best policy . 真诚是最好的策略。
3. “and”前、后的单数词语都有“each,every ,many ,a ,no”等修饰时，仍作单数用。e.g.
①Every boy and every girl enjoys equal rights here.这里每个男孩和每个女孩都享有平等权益。
②No teacher and no student is excused from taking part in the activity .没有哪个教师或学生可以免于参加这项活动。
Ⅳ. 主语前、后加表“数、量”等的修饰语时：
1. a）“many a + 单名 ”接单数谓语：“a good (great ) many + 复名”接复数谓语。e.g.
①Many a fine man has died for it . 许多优秀战士为此献出了生命。
②A great many parents were present at the meeting . 许多家长出席了会议。
b）"a / an + 单名+ or two " 大多接单数谓语： "one or two + 复名"接复数谓语。e.g.
①Only a word or two is (are )needed. 只需说一两句。
②One or two reasoms were suggested . 提出一两条理由。
c）"a / an + 单名+ and a half"常接单数谓语；“one and a half +复名”多接复数谓语。e.g.
①A year and a half has passed . 一年半已过去了。
②One and a half tons of rice are sold . 已卖了一吨半大米。
d） "more than one + 单名"大多接单数谓语。e.g.
①More than one person was (were )absent . 不止一个人缺席。
"more + 复名+ than one "接复数谓语。e.g.
②More students than one have been there . 不止一个学生去过那儿。
"more than two (three,…)+复名 " 接复数谓语。e.g.
③More than one hundred students have attended the concert . 不止一百名学生听了这场音乐会。
2 ，主语前加表示“单位、度量”的短语如“a kind (sort / type / form /pair /cup /glass /piece / load / block / box / handful / quantity / ton / metre /… )of”等时，表示“单位、度量”的这个名词的单复数决定谓语形式。e.g.
a）①There is only a small quantity of paper (books ) left . 只剩下少量的纸（书）了。
②Large quantities of water are needed . 需要大量的水。
b）①This kind of apple is sweet . 这种苹果甜。
②This kind of apples is (are) sweet . （大多依 kind ，作单数用 ）
③These kind(s) of apple(s) are sweet . （总作复数用）
但:Apples of this kind are sweet . （总作复数用）
3. 主语后接“with…”等构成的短语修饰成分时：谓语仍须与这类短语前的“主语”一致。可构成这类短语的常用“with ,along with ,together with ,as well as , but , besides , except ,added to , including , like ,no less than , rather than , more than ”等。e.g.
①A woman with two children has come . 一位妇女带着两个孩子来了。
②I as well as they am ready to help you . 不仅他们，我也愿帮助你。
4. "one of + 复数名词+ 定语从句"：
1）定语从句的先行词通常是这个“复数名词”，因此从句的谓语用复数形式。e.g.
①This is one of the best novels that have appeared this year . 这是今年出版的最佳小说之一。（关系词“that”代“novels”）
②He was one of the boys who were praised . 他是受表扬的男孩之一。
2）若“one”前加“this, the ,the only ”等时，定语从句的关系词指代one，作从句主语时，接单数谓语。e.g.
He was the only one of the boys who was praaised .他是男孩中唯一受到表扬的。(关系词who 代 the only one )
【意义一致原则（Notional Concord）】
I. 集合名词作主语时：（参见“名词”部分）
1. 有些通常作复数用（不变词形）。如：“people , police , cattle (牛，牲口)，folk , youth , militia (民兵)”，等。e.g.
The police have caught the murderer .警方已捕获凶手。
2. 有些指“整体”时作单数，指其中的“成员”时作复数（不变词形）。如 "army , audience(听众),class ,club （俱乐部) ,company(公司), committee(委员会) ,crew ,crowd ,staff(员工) ,family ,public ,government ,group ,party ,union ,couple ,population ,team ."等。e.g.
①Our family is a happy one . 我们有个幸福的家庭。
②The family are early risers . 这家人都起得早。
③The public are (is )requested not to litter . 请公众不要乱扔废弃物。
但上述集合名词也可有复数形式。如：families , two classes .等。有些变复数形式后意义不同。如：peoples多个民族。 youths男青年。 folks亲友。
II. 代词作主语时：（参见“代词”部分）
1. 不定代词"each ,one , much, (a)little ,elther ,neither ,another ,the other(+单名)"等常作单数用。它们所修饰的主语也作单数。e.g.
①Each of the girls (Each girl) has a new hat . 每个女孩都有顶新帽子。
②Neither plan suits me .③Neither of the plans suits / suit me . 两个计划都不适合我。
2. 下列复合不定代词一般作单数用：“someone ,somebody ,something ,anybody ,anyone ,anything ,everybody ,everyone ,eveything ,nobody ,no one ,nothig ”等。e.g.
①Is everybody here ? 都到齐了吗？
②There was nothing special then. 那时没什么特别情况。
3. 下列不定代词作复数用：“（a）few ,many ,several， both”等。e.g.
①Few (of the guests ) were familiar to us . 没几个（客人）是我们熟识的。
②Both / Both (of ) these are interesting . 两部影片都有趣。
4下列代词须视其“具体所指”来决定单、复数：
1）“what ,which ,who ,whose ”等。e.g.
①Who is your brother ?你兄弟是谁？
②Who are League Members .哪些是团员？
2）"all , some ,more ,most ,any ,none ,a lot(of ), lots (of ),"等。e.g.
①All (of the students ) are working hard .（所有的学生）都在用功。
②All (of the paint ) is fine .（这些油漆）都很好。
3）"half(of), plenty (of), the rest(of), (a)part(of), the remainder(of )余下的）"，等。e.g.
①Half of the apples are bad .苹果中有一半是坏的。
②Half of the apple is bad .这只苹果坏了一半。
Ⅲ.“数词”、“数量、单位”等词语作主语时：（参见“数词”部分。）
1. 表示“运算”的数词通常作单数 。e.g.
Ten times four makes(make) forty .+ 乘以四得四十。
2.表“时间、距离、金额、度量衡”等的词语，作“整体”看时作单数用，侧重指“若干单位”时作复数用。e.g.
①Twenty years is not a long time . 二十年光阴，弹指一挥间。
②Twenty years have passed since he left . 他离开已二十个年头了。
3.“分数、百分数”通常依其“具体所指”来决定单、复数。e.g.
①About 40 percent / two-fifths of the books here are (is) worth reading . 这些书中百分之四十/五分之二值得读。
②Only sixty percent / three-fifths of the work was done yesterday .昨天只干完了百分之六十/五分之三的工作。
4. "a number of (许多)/ a varlety of (各式各样) "+复数名词，常作复数用。e.g.
①A number of students in this class are (is) from Sichuan . 这个班有不少同学来自四川。
②There are a variety of toys in this shop.这家商店有各种各样的玩具。
但是，“the number(数目)/ the variety(种类)”+ of + 复数名词，作单数。e.g.
①The number of students in this college has doubled . 这所大学的学生人数翻了一番。
②The variety of goods in this shop is rich . 这家商店货物品种丰富。
Ⅳ.单、复数同形或易混的词作主语时：（参见“名词”部分）
1.以“-ics”结尾的学科名词：指教育、科研的某一学科，作单数。e.g.
Mathematics seems easy to me .我似乎觉得数学不难。
但是，表“具体的学业、活动”等时，多用作复数。e.g.
①Her mathematics are weak . 她数学差。（指“学业成绩、能力”）
②What are your politiscs? 你的政治观点如何？
2. “works工厂，means方法，series系列，species物种，aircraft飞机”等名词单、复数同形，要从上下文判断其具体意义来决定单、复数。e.g.
①This works was(These works were)built two years ago . 这（几）家工厂是两年前修建的。
②Every means has (All means have) been tried . 各种办法都试过了。
这类名词通常还有“fish ,deer ,sheep ,headquarters (总部驻地),bellows(风箱), plastics, gallows (绞架), manners(礼貌) ,whereabouts (行踪), ”等。（但news（消息）是不可数名词，通常只作单数用。）
Ⅴ. "the + 形容词/分词"作主语时：
1. 指“一类”人或事物时，常用作复数用。e.g.
①The English speak English. 英国人讲英语。
②The rejected were heaped in the corner . 废品堆在角落里。
2.指“某一个”人，或“抽象的”事物时，作单数用。e.g.
①The deceased was his father . 去世的是他父亲。
②The agreeable is not always the useful . 好看的不一定中用。
③The new and progressive always wins over the old . 新生、进步的事物总是要战胜旧的东西。
Ⅵ.专用名词作主语时：
1.“书名、剧名、报刊名、国家名”等通常作单数用。e.g.
①The United States was founded in 1776. 美国成立于1776年。
②The Arabian Nights is very interesting . 《天方夜谭》很有趣。
2.“书刊名”有时作单数或复数两可，尤其是编成集子的书。e.g.
Dickens' Amerian Notes were (was ) published in 1842 .
狄更斯所著的《美国笔记》出版于1842年。
Ⅶ“what等引导的从句”作主语时：
1. 大多作单数用。e.g.
①What we need is more practice . 我们需要的是更多的实践。
②What he says doesn't agree with what he does . 他言行不一致。
2.若从句是含复数意义的并列结构、或“表语”是复数时，谓语动词用单数或复数两可。e.g.
①What you say and think is /are no business of mine . 你怎么说以及怎么想，不关我的事。
②What he bought was /were some books . 他所买的是几本书。
【就近一致原则（Proximity）】
也称“邻近原则”，即：谓语与靠近的名词、代词（有时不一定是主语）在“人称、数”上一致。
I.在正式文体中：
1.由下列词语连接的并列主语："or ; either …or；nor; neither…or；whether…or；not…but; not only…but also" ; 等。e.g.
①What he does or what he says does not concern me . 他的行为或言谈都与我无关。
②Neither you nor I am wrong . 你和我都没错。
③Not you but your father is to blame . 不是你，而是你父亲该受责备。
④Not only you hut(also) he is wrong .不仅你错了，他也错了。
2. 在倒装句中：谓语可与后面第一个主语一致。e.g.
①In the distance was heard the clapping of hands and the shouts of the people . 在远处，能听见鼓掌声和人们的呼喊声。
②There is (are) a pen and some books on the desk .桌上有一支钢笔和几本书。
II. 非正式文体中：
有时依“就近一致原则”，但也可依“意义一致原则”或严格地依“语法一致原则”。e.g.
Neither she nor I were there (意义一致) 我和他当时都不在那儿。（非正式）
Neither she nor I was there .（就近一致）（译文同上句）（正式）
但是，如果依“就近一致原则”而与其他两项原则相矛盾时，则常常认为是不太合符规范的。e.g.
No one except his own supporters agree with him .仅他自己的支持者同意他的意见。（依“就近”和“意义”一致的原则；但语法上，“No one ”才是主语，谓语要改成“agrees”。“写作中”一般要依“语法一致”原则。 ） 祈使句表示命令和请求 一般结构是主语省略动词原型
wil 本身是个助动词 可以引导将来时，可以表示意愿，决心，许诺
他用在第二人称问句时 有祈使的语气 表示征询对方意见：
Will you type this for me?
Will you do me a favor?
Will you stay for lunch?
用would可以表示更加委婉
用wont 开头可译为，可否，要不要
Wont you come in and have sth to drink?
Wont you take off your coat?
will 可以表示倾向性的习惯：
Boys will be boys 男孩总归是男孩
sometimes the cat will lie on the roof all afternoon.
will可以表示猜测，翻译成想必：
That will be the man you are looking for.
He will know the answer
Most of you will have heard of SARS
语气弱于must 强于may
排列顺序为
might<may<might well <may well<will/should<must/can
the photos might/may be ready tomorrow (not sure)
............... should/will/must be ready tomorrow (sure)
引自刘飞飞老师 littlewing的总结笔记:反意疑问句要点
反意疑问句主要由“陈述句+反意疑问”构成，反意疑问部分的动词一般要与陈述部分的动词相对应，反意疑问部分的主语要与陈述部分的主语相对应，如果陈述部分的主语是名词，则反意疑问部分用相应的代词表示
其形式：
肯定陈述句+否定反意疑问句
This pencil is red,isn't it?
否定陈述句+肯定反意疑问句
This pencil isn't red,is it?
肯定陈述句+肯定反意疑问句
This pencil is red,isn't it?
否定陈述句+否定反意疑问句
This pencil isn't red,isn't it?
（前两种形式是主要的，后两种不常见）
其用法：
1 a 以let's开头的祈使句，反意疑问用shall we
b 以let us 开头的祈使句，反意疑问部分则用will you
c 如果祈使句是否定形式，那么反意疑问句只能用will you
d 当陈述部分是祈使句时，反意疑问部分一般用will you（这种情况，有些语法书上说也可用won't you,would you，但我觉得还是记will you最好，不乱）
Don't be too late,will you?
Come here,will you?
Let's have a party tonight,shall we?
Let us have a look at you pictures,will you?
Don't forget to bring your notebooks here tomorrow,will you?
2 陈述句是主从复合句，反意疑问句中主谓语与主句的主谓语保持对应关系
*以think/suppose/believe/expect/feel/guess …为谓语动词的的主从复合句，且主语是第一人称I时，反意疑问句中主谓语与从句的主谓语保持对应关系（注意人称、时态保持一致，同时还要考虑到否定的转移）
I believe that the boy can get a ticket for you, can’t he?
I don't think I will trouble you much，will I?
3 当陈述部分是there存在句时，反意疑问部分的主语用there
There aren't a lof of flowers in the garden in winter,are there?
There existed different oppinions on this issue,didn't there?
4 当陈述部分是以不定代词one作主语时，反意疑问句的主语在正式场合用one,在非正式场合用you
One cannot succeed at this,can one?
One cannot succeed at this,can you?
5 当陈述部分是I'm...结构时，反意疑问部分一般用aren't I
I am a student,aren't I?
6 陈述部分的主语是this,that时，疑问部分的主语多用it;陈述部分的主语是these,those时，疑问部分的主语多用they。如：
This is a dictionary,isn’t it?
Those are shelves,aren’t they?
7 当陈述部分的谓语动词是have时，反意疑问部分要根据have的意义及形式而定
a 当have表示“所有”含义时，反意疑部厅以用have形式，也可以用do形式
He has a book in his hand,hasn't he?
He has a book in his hand,doesn't he?
b 当陈述部分的动词是have的否定形式时，反意疑问部分是用have形式还是用do形式，取决于陈述部分的动词形式
You haven't a car,have you?
You don't have any money with you,do you?
c 当have不表示“所有”含义而表示其他含义时，反意疑问句则必须用do的形式
We had a good time in the vacation,didn't we?
He has his breakfast at seven everyday,doesn't he?
You have to get up early tomorrow,don't you?
8 当陈述部分带有never,nothing,nowthere,seldom,hardly,rarely,few,little 等否定词或半否定词时，反意疑问部分的动词用肯定形式
You can hardly believe what he said,can you?
There is little ink in the bottle,is there?
Few people know this place,do they?
*当陈述部分的谓语动词是带有un-，in-，dis-等否定前缀的动词，则仍然把陈述部分看作肯定句，那么反意疑问部分用否定形式
He is impolite to the teacher,isn't he?
He distrusted anybody around him,didn't he?
9 当陈述部分带有情态动词ought to时，反意疑问部分在英式英语中用ought 形式，在美式英语中用should形式
You ought to see the new picture,shouldn't you?
Teachers ought to be honoured,oughtn't they?
10 当陈述部分带有情态动词used to时，反意疑问部分可以用used形式，也可以用did形式
She used to live abroad,usedn't she?
There used to be a newsstand in the corner of the street,didn't there?
11 当陈述部分带有情态动词must时，反意疑问部分需视must的含义而定
a 当must表示“命令或强制”时，反意疑问部分用mustn't
You must do it by yourself,mustn't you?
b 当must表示“有必要”时，反意疑问句用needn't
You must see him tonight,meedn't you?
c 当must表示“一定”或“想必”等推测意义时，反意疑问部分不用mustn't，而根据must后的动词形式而定
He must be crazy to do so,isn't he?
She must have been there for a long time,hasn't she?
They must have stayed at home last might,didn't they?
12 当陈述部分带有need时，反意疑问部分需视need的含义而定。如果need用作情态动词，则反意疑问部分用need形式；如果need用作实义动词，表示“需要”，则反意疑问部分用do形式
You needn't go there,need you?
She needs to fo there,doesn't she?
Plants need sun to grow,don't they?
13 当陈述部分带有I'd better或I'd rather时，反意疑问部分用hadn't或wouldn't
You'd better finish the task before tomorrow,hadn't you?
He'd rather stay with us,wouldn't he?
14 陈述句的主语是动词不定式，动词的ing形式或从句时，疑问部分的主语多用it来体现
Taking care of our environment is very important, isn’t it?
What he said is right, isn’t it?
15 陈述句的主语是nobody, no one, everyone, somebody 等不定代词时，反意疑问部分的主语多用they; 如果陈述句的主语是something, nothing, anything, everything 等不定代词时，反意疑问部分的主语多用it
Nobody says a word about the accident, do they?
Everything seems all right, doesn’t it?
16 陈述句中的谓语动词是表示愿望的wish时，反意疑问句中用may，而且要用肯定
I wish to recollect where I met her,may I?
17 陈述句若是并列句,反意疑问句中的主语与谓语应与最靠近的句子的主语和谓语保持对应关系(呵呵,昨天做题时候刚见到的)
We must study English hard, or we are not good at English, are we? 定语从句 （高一重点,也是高二内容）
用来说明主句中某一名词或代词（有时也可说明整个主句或主句中一部分）而起定语作用的句子叫作定语从句。
一．词引导的定语从句
1. 关系代词用来指代先行词是人或物的名词或代词
句子成分 用于限制从句或非限制性从句 只用于限制性从句
代替人 代替物 代替人或物
主语 Who which that
主语 Whom which that
宾语 Whose(=of whom) whose(=of which)
例１：This is the detective who came from London.
例２：The book which I am reading is written by Tomas Hardy.
例３：The desk whose leg is broken is very old.
例４：This is the room that Shakespeare was born in.
２．关系代词的用法
(1) 如果先行词是all, much, anything, something, nothing, everything, little, none等不定代词，关系代词一般只用that，不用which。例如：
All the people that are present burst into tears.
(2) 如果先等词被形容词最高级以及first, last, any, only, few, mush, no, some, very等词修饰，关系代词常用that,不用which, who，或whom。例如：
(3) 非限制性定语从句中，不能用关系代词that,作宾语用的关系代词也不能省略。例如：
There are about seven million people taking part in the election, most of whom、are well educated.
(4) which还有一种特殊用法，它可以引导从句修饰前面的整个主句，代替主句所表示的整体概念或部分概念。在这种从句中，which可以作主语，也可以作宾语或表语，多数情况下意思是与and this 相似，并可以指人。例如：
He succeeded in the competition, which made his parents very happy.
(5) that可指人或物，在从句中作表语，（指人作主语时多用who）仅用于限制性定语从句中。
(6) which可作表语，既可指人，以可指物。指人时，一般指从事某种职业或是有种特征．品性或才能的人。Which引导的定语从句可以限制性的，也可以是非限制性的。
(7) 如果作先作词的集体名词着眼于集体的整体，关系代词用which;若是指集体中的各个成员，则用who。
(8) 先行词有两个，一个指人，一个指物，关系代词应该用that。例如：
The boy and the dog that are in the picture are very lovely.
(9) 如果先行词是anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody,关系代词应该用 who 或whom，不用 which。例如：
Is there anyone here who will go with you?
３．“介词＋关系代词“是一个普遍使用的结构
(1) “介词＋关系代词“可以引导限制性定语从句，也可以引导非限制性定语从句。“介词＋关系代词“结构中的介词可以是 in, on, about, from, for, with, to at, of, without 等，关系代词只可用whom或 which,不可用 that 。
(2) from where为“介词＋关系副词“结构，但也可以引导定语从句。例如：
We stood at the top of the hill, from where we can see the town..
(3) 像listen to, look at, depend on, pay attention to, take care of等固定短语动词，在定语从句中一般不宜将介词与动词分开。例如：
This is the boy whom she has taken care of.
二．关系副词引导的定语从句
1．关系副词也可以引导定语从句
关系副词在从句中分别表示时间．地点或原因。关系副词when在从句中充当时间状语，where 充当地点状语，why充当原因状语。
2. that可引导定语从句表示时间．地点或原因
That有时可以代替关系副词 when, where 或者why引导定语从句表示时间．地点或原因，在 that引导的这种定语从句中，that也可以省去。
三．限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句
1．二者差异比较
限制定语从句紧跟先行词，同先行词这间一般不加逗号，仅修饰先行词，可以由关系代词．关系副词或that来引导。非限制性定语从句仅作补充或说明，用逗号与主句隔开，既可修饰先行词，又可修饰整个主句，不可用that引导。
2．关系代词和关系副词的选择依据
(1) 弄清代替先行词的关系词在从句中作什么成分,作状语的应选用关系副词，作主语．宾语或表语的可选用关系代词。 3. 先行词与定语从句隔离
定语从句一般紧跟在先行词之后，但定语从句与先行词之间有时也会插入别的成分，构成先行词与定语从句的隔离。例如：
1) This is the article written by him that Is poke to you about..
2) He was the only person in this country who was invited
四．As在定语从句中的用法
1. 引导限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句
（１）as多与such 或the same连用，可以代替先行词是人或物的名词。
（２）as 也可单独使用，引导非限制性定语从句，作用相当于which。例如：
The elephant’s nose is like a snake, as anybody can see.
３）the same… that与 the same …as在意思上是不同的。
2．As引导的非限制性定语从句的位置
as引导的非限制性定语从句位置较灵活，可以位于主句前面．中间或后面，一般用逗号与主句隔开，但which所引导的非限制性定语从句只能放在主句之后。例如：
(1) As is expected, the England team won the football match.
(2) The earth runs around the sun, as is known by everyone 状语从句 （高二内容）
修饰主句中的动词, 形容词和副词, 通常有从属连词引导, 按其意义和作用可分为时间, 地点, 条件, 原因, 让步, 目的, 结果, 方式, 比较.等
1. 时间状语从句:
1) 常见连词有 after, as, before, once, since, till, (not)until, when, whenever(no matter when), while, as long as, as soon as etc.
As you look at yourself in a mirror, you’ll seen an identical image of yourself.
It is a long time before it is possible to test the medicine on human patients.
It was not until…that
Not until…did he…
Not until I received the letter, did I know he had gone to America.
It was not until….
When I got to the airport, I suddenly remembered that I had left the ticket behind.
I was about to leave, when something occurred which attracted my attention.
Whenever we have difficulty, he’ll come to help us.
2) no sooner…than, hardly(scarcely, barely)…when: 刚做…就….
No sooner had I opened the door than the telephone rang.
She had scarcely news when she fainted.
3) 还有 immediately, directly, instantly, the moment, the minute, the instant, the second, every time etc
I’ll tell you about it the moment you come.
I got in touch with him immediately I received his letter.
2. 地点状语从句: 一般用where or wherever 引导
I will stand where I can see the parade clearly.
Wherever they went, they were warmly welcome.
3. 条件状语从句:真实条件从句:if, unless, so long as, provided that, supposing that, on condition that, in the event that, in case that etc
I will not go to her party if she doesn’t invite me.
I will not go to her party unless she invites me.
4. 原因状语从句: 从属连词有because, as ,since, for, now, that, in that, seeing that, considering that(鉴于,由于)
As the school regulations are written quite clearly, there is nothing more to be explained.
Considering that the sweater was hard made, it was not expensive.
Seeing that they are inexperienced, they are doing quite a good job.
5. 让步状语从句:
1): even if, though, even though, while(尽管) no matter what/how/which, however, whatever, whichever, however etc.
He will not give up smoking even though the doctor advises him to.
Whatever the consequence may be, I will be on your side.
However hard she tried to explain, nobody trusted her.
It has been the same result, whichever way you do it.
2) 由as 引起的让步从句, 语气较强烈,被强调的词须放在句首.
Simple as the question may seem, it is not at all common in nature.
Cold as it is, the children play outdoors.
Much as I respect him, I can’t agree with him.
Object as you may, I will go on with my plan.
3) whether…or,不管…或…
whether you be a student or a teacher, you are required to obey the regulations of the school.
6. 结果状语从句: so that, so…that, such…that
He is so humorous that we’ll never forget him.
She is such a nice girl that everybody likes to make friends with her.
7. 目的状语从句: so that, in order that, for fear that, lest, in case
I checked all the results time and again for fear that there should be any mistakes.
Telephone us in advance in order that we might make the necessary arragements.
8. 方式状语从句: as, just as, as if: 如同…一样
we should do the exercise as our teacher tells us.
You talk as if you had really been there.
It looks as if it is going to rain.
Nails protect the ends of human fingers and toes as claw protect the toes of most animals.
The young man operates the machine as the old worker has taught him.
9. 比较状语从句:
1) as…as, not so/as…as
the film was not so exciting as we expected.
The history of nursing is as old as the history of man.
She likes them almost as much as Paul does.
2) 比较级+than, so much/a lot more than
She looks much younger than she is.
The universe is a lot more complicated than you think.
3) no more…than, not more…than, less…than
Jack is no more frightened than Mike is.
Jack is not more frightened than Mike is. 不像马克那么害怕
Tom is no more rich than Black
3) the more…the more
The farther north you go, the severer the winter is.
The more I see of him, the less I like him. 虚拟语气 （高二内容，但虚拟语气在高考的选择题中已多年未出现，主要放在阅读理解中）
Verb可以决定1pattern句型
2mood语气 （1）陈述
（2）祈使
（3）虚拟[1]if 一般
含蓄
[2]语气 should句
[3]原型
[4]其他
简单的说虚拟语气可以分4类（1，2，4考的比较多）
1．if条件句
（一般）
if 条件句 主句
现在 if+主语+were/v-ed , 主语+would(should could might)+do
过去 if+主语+had+v-ed , 主语+would(should could might)+have+v-ed
将来 if+主语+v-ed/were to/should, 主语+would(should could might)+do
$$省略if的用法 1去掉if
2 should /had/were提前
$$错综 主句和从句发生的时间不同,（有些会给你时间状语）
if I were you, I would have taken that position.
从句现在 主句过去
if he had listened to me, he would not be in such a big trouble now.（now）
从句过去 主句现在
（含蓄）没有if在条件句中出现常常是：
given, suppose, supposing, but for=if sb had not been for, but that, otherwise, or, without
2表示建议、命令或要求，在从句中用should do 美语里should常省略
（1）宾语从句
建议：advise propose suggest move recommend
要求：request require demand insist urge
命令：order command direct
$$(insist 表坚持认为 suggest表暗示 仍用陈述语气)
（2）主语从句
it is/was +adj/v-ed+that clause
adj/v-ed :important urgent significant vital necessary essential imperative crucial preferable advisable required demanded insistent desired ordered natural
(3)表语/同位语从句
修饰N的表语或同位语从句中(通常是前两组的名词性词)
advice desire idea suggestion request plan motion demand order proposal requirement command recommendation insistence preference
3原型
eg god bless you. 判断依据：正常 s第三人称 v+es/s
4其他
（1） Wish 从句中谓语动词
现在 were/did
过去had v-ed/could have v-ed
将来could/would do
（2） would (had) rather类似于wish
$$I would rather you wrote me once a week.(虚拟)
I would rather phone you 3times a week than write you once a week.(情态)
（3） it’s about/high time that+s+did……表早该做某事
（4） if only要是……就好了，但愿……常省略主句
if only I were 2 years younger.
(5)as if/though [1]不用虚拟
[2]用 同if虚拟
(6)以防，唯恐 in case,lest,for fear that
还有一些表委婉客气1would u mind my smoking here ?
表感情色彩it’s surprising that she should look so miserable.
以上引自samantha
在高中阶段，虚拟语气被普遍认为是难度大，不易掌握的语法项目，很容易使初学者望而生畏，能否从中找出一些规律呢？下面就是根据虚拟语气的谓语动词变化，把虚拟语气分为四大类型，以便掌握。
l.时间选择型
当虚拟语气用来表示一种不能成为现实、不真实的情况时，须选择与现在、将来和过去情况相反的三种不同时间，从而决定谓语动词。这类虚拟语气主要用于如下几方面:
（1）虚拟条件句（含蓄虚拟条件句）
If l were you，l would study much harder．
（与现在情况相反）
If he did（were to do，should do）it，he would do it well．
（与将来情况相反）
I wouldn't have finished the work without your help．
（与过去情况相反）
（2）由 even if（though）引导的让步状语从句，其谓语动词变化同于虚拟条件句，在口语中也可用直陈语气。
Even if he were here, he wouldn't be able to help you．
（与现在情况相反）
Nothing could have saved your father，even if the doctor had arrived on time．
（与过去情况相反）
（3） wish后的宾语从句
I wish I were five years younger than you．
（与现在情况相反）
He wishes you would go with him.（与将来情况相反）
I wished I had won the match．（与过去情况相反）
注意：wish的时态不影响从句三种时间的判定。
（4） as if（though）引导的表语从句和方式状语从句
He looks as if he were very sleepy．（与现在情况相反）
They are talking about something，as if they were quarrelling with each other．（与现在正发生的惰况相反）
2．should+动词原形型
这种类型的虚拟语气一般用于主语从句、宾语从句、表语和同位语从句。谓语由should+动词原形构成，无论什么人称都不能用 would，should在口语中可以略去。
（1）在主语从句中用以表示惊奇、惋惜、理应如此，构成 It is natural（important, necessary，strange，a pity，a shame等）that… 句型。
It is natural that you should say apology to him．
It is a pity that you should be careless．
（2）用于表示命令、建议一类动词后的宾语从句，如：suggest，move，insist，demand，request，command等。
The young man insisted that he should be sent to do the work．
I suggested that we should set off earlier．
应注意：当insist表示对已发生过的事物的看法，或当suggest为“说明了”，“暗示”的含义时，从句用直陈语气而不用虚拟语气。
The Arab insisted that he hadn't seen the camel．
His smile suggested that he was happy．
（3）当表示间接的要求、建议、命令、决定等名词作主语时，其表语从句用 should+动词原形。这类名词有 suggestion，request，order，advice，idea等。
The officer's order was that his soldiers should repair the defence works at once．
His advice is that your father should do more exercises in the morning．
（4）上述名词的同位语从句也应用should+动词原形。
I did not receive the order that you should leave here at once．
His suggest on that you should keep silent is reasonable．
3．一般过去式型
这类虚拟语气的谓语动词一般用动词过去式表示，常用于如下几个方面：
（1）用would，could，might表示说话人的谦逊、客气、婉转。
Could you tell me the way to the cinema？
Would you mind my smoking here？
（2）用于so that和 in order that引导的目的状语从句。
They are climbing higher so that they could see the whole city．
但从句若要否定的话则用shouldn’t。
He locked the door of his room in order that he shouldn't be troubled by someone．
（3）用于It is time that 句型。
It is time that the problem was solved．
在此句型中也可用should+动词原形。应注意该句型若用过去式表示时，第一、三人称单数不可用were代替was。
4．动词原形型
该类型虚拟语气谓语仅用动词原形，第三人称单数也不加“s”
（1）表示强烈愿望。
God save me．
Heaven help us．
（2）用may放在句首表示说话人对对方的祝愿和祝福。
May you be happy．
May you secceed． 浅谈中学英语时态的用法
北京市特级教师 程中一
1.一般现在时的用法
1）表示经常性，习惯性的动作；表示现在的状态，特征 和真理。句中常用often, usually, every day等时间状语，例如：
He goes to school every day. （经常性动作）
He is very happy.（现在的状态）
The earth moves around the sun. （真理）
2）在时间状语从句和条件状语从句中，用现在时表示将来，例如：
If you come this afternoon, we’ll have a meeting.
When I graduate, I’ll go to the countryside.
Don’t get off the bus until it has stopped.
3）有时这个时态表示按计划，规定要发生的动作。（句中都带有时间状语词）但仅限于少数动词，如：begin come, leave, go, arrive, start, stop, return, open, close等，例如：
The meeting begins at seven.
The train starts at nine in the morning.
4）表示状态和感觉的动词。如be, like, hate, think, remember, find, sound等常用一般现在时。例如：
I like English very much.
The story sounds interesting.
5）书报的标题，小说等情节介绍常用一般现在时。
2. 一般过去时的用法
1）表示过去某时发生的事，存在的状态或过去反复发生的动作。
He saw Mr.Wang yesterday.
He worked in a factory in 1986.
2）表示过去经常发生的动作，也可用“used to”和“would+动词原形”。例如：
I used to smoke.
During the vacation I would swim in the sea.
注意：used to表示过去常发生而现在不发生的动作或 存在的状态。另外“be used to+名词（动名词）”表示 “习惯于…… ”。例如：
I am used to the climate here.
He is used to swimming in winter.
3. 一般将来时的用法
一般将来时表示将来的动作或状态，其表达形式除了“will或shall+动词原形”外，还有以下几种形式。
1）“to be going to+动词原形”, 表示即将发生的或最近打算进行的事。例如：
It is going to rain.
We are going to have a meeting today.
2）go, come, start, move, sail, leave等可用进行时态表示按计划即将发生的动作。例如：
I’m leaving for Beijing.
3)be to+动词原形”表示按计划要发生的事或征求对方意见。例如：
Are we to go on with this work?
The boy is to go to school tomorrow.
4）“be about to+动词原形”表示即将发生的动作。例如：
We are about to leave.
4. 现在进行时的用法
1）现在进行时表示现在正在进行的动作，由“to be+现在分词”构成。例如：
What are you doing?
2）表示感觉，愿望和状态的某些动词，如have, be, hear, see, like等词一般不用进行时。
5. 过去进行时的用法
1）过去进行时表示过去某一时刻，某一阶段正进行的动作，由“was (were)+现在分词”构成。例如：
In 1980 he was studying in a university.
He was reading a novel when I came in.
6. 现在完成时的用法
现在完成时由“have+过去分词”构成。其使用有两种情况：
1）现在完成时所表示的动作在说话之前已完成，而对现在有影响。句中没有明显时间状语。例如：
He has gone to Fuyang . (说话人认为他不在该地)
He has been to Fuyang. （说话人认为他在该地）
现在完成时所表示的动作开始于过去，持续到现在，也许还会持续下去。常用for和since表示一段时间的状语或so far, now, today, this week (month, year)等表示包括现在时间在内的状语。例如：
He has studied English for 5 years.
He has studied English since 1985.
Now I have finished the work.
注意：表示短暂时间动作的词，如:come, go, die, marry, buy等的完成时不能与for, since等表示一段时间的词连用。
3）现在完成时还可用在时间和条件状语从句中，表示将来某时完成的动作。例如：
I’ll go to your home when I have finished my homework.
If it has stopped snowing in the morning, we will go to the park.
7. 过去完成时的用法
）过去完成时由“had+过去分词” 构成，过去完成时的动作表示过去某一时刻或某一动作之前完成的动作状态。句中常用by, before, until, when等词引导的时间状语。例如：
By the end of last year we had built five new houses.
I had learnt 5000 words before I entered the university.
2）过去完成时的动词还可表示过去某一时刻之前发生的动作或状态持续到过去某个时间或持续下去。例如：
Before he slept, he had worked for 12 hours.
8）过去将来时的用法
过去将来时表示从过去的某时间看将要发生的动作或状态。过去将来时由“should或would+动词原形”构成。第一人称用should,其他人称用would.例如：
They were sure that they would succeed.
9）现在完成进行时的用法
现在完成进行时由“have (has)+been+现在分词”构成，表示现在以前一直在进行的动作。有些词，如work, study, live, teach等用现在完成进行时与用现在完成时意思差不多。例如：
I have worked here for three years.
I have been working here for three years.
但多数动词在这两种时态中表示不同意思。例如：
I have written a letter（已写完）
I have been writing a letter（还在写）
注意：表示短暂动作的动词，如finish, marry, get up, come go等不能用这种时态。
练习(28楼,这次时态有练习喽)
1.We _____ a party next weekend. I hope you can come.
A. have B. will have C. had D. would have
2. I _____ a book at home when I heard a loud noise outside the building.
A. have read B. was reading C. read D. had read
3. -- ____ my glasses?
-- Yes, I saw them on your bed a minute ago.
A. Do you see B. Had you seen
C. Would you see D. Have you seen
4. Helen _____ her key in the office so she had to wait until her husband _____ home.
A. had left; comes B. left; had come
C. had left; came D. had left; would come
5. – Hi, Tracy, you look tired.
-- I am tired. I _____ the living room all day.
A. painted B. had painted C. have been painting D. have painted
6. – You have left the light on.
-- Oh, so I have. _____ and turn it off.
A. I’ll go B. I’ve gone C. I go D. I’m going
7. The reporter said that the UFO _____ east to west when he saw it.
A. was traveling B. traveled
C. had been traveling D. was to travel
8. I _____ ping-pong quite well, but I haven’t had time to play since the new year.
A. will play B. have played C. played D. play
9. – You haven’t said a word about my new coat, Brenda. Do you like it?
-- I’m sorry I _____ anything about it sooner. I certainly think it’s pretty on you.
A. wasn’t saying B. don’t say C. won’t D. didn’t say
10. I wonder why Jenny _____ us recently. We should have heard from her by now.
A. hasn’t written B. doesn’t write C. won’t write D. hadn’t write
Key:1-5 BBDCC 6-10 AADDA 情态动词
情态动词在词义、形态、语法功能方面不同于实义动词、系动词和助动词。
英语的情态动词有： can（could)，may(might)，must,ought to
此外还有:will(would)，shall(should)(也可做助动词）， 以及dare,need(也可做实义动词）。
情态动词用性繁多：
1.表示能力、可能、可以：can（could), may(might)：
2.表示必须、应该: must,should, ought to;
3.用于询问，请求允许：may(might),can(could),shall（should）
4.表示请求，邀请：will(would)，can(could)
5.表示推测与猜想 ：can(could)，may(might)，must；
6..用于目的状语从句中：may(might)，can(could),should；
7.用于虚拟语气中：could，would，should，might。
重点难点分析
表示能力，可能，可以：can(could)，may(might)
1.The party starts at 8:00. Can you turn up at 7:45? 聚会8:00开始,你能在7:45来吗?
本句还可改写为: Is it possible for you to turn up at 7:45?
2.We can't finish the work in such a short time. 我们不可能在这么短的时间完成这项工作.
本句还可改写为: It's impossible for us to finish the work in such a short time.
3.He has studied English for only three years .But now he can speak it quite well.
他英语只学三年,但现在能讲得很漂亮了.
本句可改写为: Now he is able to speak it quite well.
4.She was a good swimmer, so she was able to swim to the river bank when the boat sank.
她水性好,所以当船沉没时,她游到了河岸. 不能用could,在此只能用was able to 来表示过去的设法完成的动作,
也可以改写为：…so she managed to swim to the river bank.
…so she succeeded in swimming to the river bank.
不管用那种方式表法,字里行间都要有经过努力拼搏,动作才得以完成的意味.
表示必须．应该:must, should, ought to
1.We must get there before dark. 。 我们必须在天黑之前到达那里.
本句可以改写为: It is necessary for us to get there before dark.
或: It's necessary that we (should) get there before dark.
2.You should help each other. 你们应该互相帮助.
本句也可改写为: You ought to help each other.但语气 比前者强烈.
3.---Must I return the book very soon? 一这书我很快就得还吗?
----No you needn't. You can keepit as long as you wish. 一不你想用多久就用多久.
must 在这里的否定形式是: needn't(l不必要).而mustn't表示"禁止","不许"如:
You mustn't cross the road when the lights are red. 红灯时,不许 横穿马路.
用于询问及请求允许:may(might),can(could),shall(should)
l一Can I help you, sir? 一我能为您效劳吗？
－Yes,I bought this radio yesterday, but it doesn't work. 一对,昨天我买了这台收音机,但不好使。
第一句还可改写为： Is there anything I can do for you?
还可缩减成： Anything I can do for you?
can也可用may代替，如：
2.How long may I keep the book? 这书我司以借用多久？
3----Could I use your phone? 一我能借用一下电话吗？
－Yes ,of course, you can. 一请,当然习以。
could用于询问,语气更显得礼貌,但在回答时则不能用,仍须用can。
表示请求邀请：will(would),can(could)：
1.Can you explain the sentence to us in simpler English? 请您用简单英语把这个句子给我们讲一下。
can you 也可改为 will you 但更有礼貌的说法是： could you 或would you 要牢记：自己做事情想得到对方的允许要用：May I……要请求对方做事则要用Could（Would） you.....一这应该是脱口而出的。
2.Would you please leave your telephone number with us? 请把您的电话号码给我们留下好吗？
表示推测与猜想:can(could),may(might),must;
l一Can the girl over there be our English teacher? 一那边的那个女孩可能是我们的英语老师吧？
-----She may be,but I'm not sure . 一可能（也许是）但我说不准。
can be ,may be表示对现在事物的判断与推测。
2---Who can it be that turned off the light? 一是谁把灯关了？
－It must be Wang Dong. —一定是王东。
may be为也许（可能）是而must be 则十分肯定， 译为：肯定是（一定是）前者是I'm not sure.。或者：I don't know for sure．而后者则是I'm certain.
用于目的状语从句中：may(might),can(could),should:
1.They asked the driver to stop the beast so that they could have a "look".
他们（指六个盲人）请求赶大象的人停下来让他们“看看”大象是 什么样的
so that (that) , in order that, lest, in case引导目的状语从句从句中要有情态动词may(might),can(could),should.
2.She always takes careful notes in class so that she may review them from time to time.
她总是认真记课堂笔记,为的是好经常复习。
3.They turned the radio up so that everyone might(could) hear the news.
他们把收音机信号开大,以便每个人都能听到新闻。
用于虚拟语气中：could ,would, should,might,
1.If we had more rain, our crops would grow better. 如果雨水多些,庄稼会长的更好些。
从句用一般过去时,主句用情态动词+ 动词 原形,这种虚拟语气的结构用来表示同现存状况相反的事买。
2.If she had taken the doctor's advice, she would have got well already.
如果当初她听大夫的劝告,她的病早好了。
从句用过去完成时,主句用情态动词+ 完成式构 成与过去事买相反的虚拟语气。
3.If a car travelling at 60 miles an hour should go from the earth to the sun ,it would take over 179 years to reach it.
如果有一辆汽车,以每小时60英里的速度,从地球驶向太阳,则需I79多年的时间才能到达那里。
IF ....should do ....would take.....一构成虚拟语气,用来表示将来不太可能买现的事实。
4.We should have studied last night,but we went to the concert instead
昨晚我们本应该学习，但却去听了音乐会。
"should+ 完成式"用来表示过去应该做而没有做的事。
要注意的问题
情态动词中的难点，而且又是近来高考的热点。
一、要注意一些同义、近义的情态动词的区别
1 . 表示可能性的 can’t 与 may not 的区别。
can‘t 常常表示“不可能”、“一定不”，may not 表示“可能不、或许不”。很明显，can’t 比 may not 语气强，把握性大。如：
The man standing over there _____ be Jack . He‘s gone to Hong Kong .
A . mustn’t B . can‘t C . won’t D . may not
说话者既然知道“He‘s gone to Hong Kong”，那么对“The man 不是 Jack”一定满有把握，故正确选项为 B。
2 . 表示“能够”意义的 can 与 be able to 的区别。
凡表示“经过努力、设法做成某事”时不用 can，须用 be able to。如：
The fire spread through the hotel very quickly , but everyone _____ get out . ( NMET97 )
A . had to B . would C . could D . was able to
句意为：大火弥漫整个旅馆，但人位学是设法逃了出来。故正确选项为D。
3 . 表示“不能”意义的 can’t 与 mustn‘t 的区别。
can’t 表示“不能”，是指无能力；mustn‘t 表示“不能”则指的是“禁止，不允许”。在口语里，can’t 也可表示“禁止，不允许”，但语气不如 mustn‘t 强。如：
( 1 ) 他年纪小，不能上学。
He is so young that he can’t go to school .
( 2 ) 里边正在开会，不能吵闹。
There‘s meeting inside . You mustn’t make any noise .
二、要注意几个使用的特定范围
1 . 表示推测时，can 不能用在肯定句中 ( 但 could 能 ) ；may 和 might 不能用在疑问句中。如：
( 1 ) Peter _____ come with us tonight , but he isn’t very sure yet . ( MET93 )
A . must B . may C . can D . will
句意为：Peter 有可能同我们一块儿来，但还不肯定。正确选项为 B。
( 2 ) _____ it be a sunny day tomorrow?
A . Can B . May C . Shall D . Should
句意为：明天可能是睛天吗?正确选项是 A。
2 . 作为情态动词，need 和 dare 不能用在肯定句中 ( 条件状语从句除外 ) 。肯定句中，须把它们用作实义动词，后接带 to 的不定式。如：
误We need hold a meeting to discuss the matter .
正We need to hold a meeting to discuss the matter .
正If you need hold a meeting to discuss the matter , I‘ll give you a help .
3 . 在回答由 could 和 might 引起的表示请示的一般疑问句时，不能用 could 和 might ( 应分别用 can 和 may ) 回答。如：
— Could I borrow your dictionary?
— Yes , of course you _____ . ( MET92 )
A . might B . will C . can D . could
正确选项为 C。
三、要注意一些“形意不一致”的现象
1 . 过去式 could 或 might 后接动词原形可以表示对现在或将来 ( 不是对过去 ) 的推测。如：
I’m afraid it _____ snow tonight .
A . can B . should C . might D . must
2 . may ( not ) 和 can‘t 后接动词的完成式，表示对过去 ( 不是对现在或将来 ) 的推测。如：
— There were already five people in the car but they managed to take me as well .
— It _____ a comfortable journey .
A . can’t have been B . couldn‘t be C . mustn’t have been D . shouldn‘t be
四、要注意情态动词的常用形式的反常使用。
1 . should 和 ought to 后接动词原形，常表示“应该……”；但也可用来表示推测，意为“想必会……”。如：
( 1 ) It’s nearly seven o‘clock . Jack _____ be here ar any moment . ( NMET95 )
A . must B . need C . should D . can
句意为：“快七点钟了，想必杰克随时会到的”。正确选项为 C。
( 2 ) — When can I come for the photos? I need them tomorrow afternoon .
— They _____ be ready by 12∶00 . ( NMET98 )
A . can B . should C . might D . need
句意为“ — 我什么时候来取像片呢?我可是明天下午需要这些像片。”“ — 像片想必会在 ( 明日中午 ) 十二点以前洗出的。”正确选项为 B。情态动词表示推测，语气由强到弱的是：must ( 一定会 ) →ought to / should ( 想必会 ) →can / could ( 可能 ) →may / might ( 也许，或许 ) 。
2 . could 后接完成式常表示“ ( 过去 ) 可能……”，但也可用来表示责备语气，意为 “过去 ) 本来能够……， 而实际上却未…… ”。如：
— We could have walked to the station ; it was so near .
— Yes . A taxi _____ at all necessary . ( NMET92 )
A . wasn’t B . hadn‘t been C . wouldn’t be D . won‘t be
该题虽是一道考查动词时态的考题，但从“We could have walked to the station”可知，实际不是步行去火车站的。结合下句可知是坐了出租车去的，时间是过去，故正确答案是 A。
练习
1．Jenny＿＿＿＿have kept her word．I wonder why she changed her mind．(MET1992)
A．must B．should C．need D．would
2．The monitor must be in the reading-room, ＿＿＿＿ he﹖
A．mustn’t B．doesn’t C．needn’t D．isn’t
3．Dr Baker must have given a good speech at the conference yesterday, ＿＿＿＿ he﹖
A．mustn’t B．didn’t C．needn’t D．isn’t
4．I told Sally how to get here, but perhaps I ＿＿＿＿ for her．(NMET1994)
A．had to write it out B．must have written it out
C．should have written it out D．ought to write it out
5．He hardly ＿＿＿＿ say anything more, since you know all about it．
A．don’t B．needn’t C．needs D．need
Key: BDBCD 独立主格
1 独立主格
（一）： 独立主格结构的构成：
名词(代词)+现在分词、过去分词；
名词(代词)+形容词；
名词(代词)+副词；
名词(代词)+不定式；
名词(代词) +介词短语构成。
（二） 独立主格结构的特点：
1）独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在。
2）名词或代词与后面的分词，形容词，副词，不定 式，介词等是主谓关系。
3）独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。
举例：
The test finished, we began our holiday.
= When the test was finished, we began our holiday.
考试结束了，我们开始放假。
The president assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
= After the president was assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
总统被谋杀了，举国上下沉浸在悲哀之中。
Weather permitting, we are going to visit you tomorrow.
如果天气允许，我们明天去看你。
This done, we went home.
工作完成后，我们才回家。
The meeting gone over, everyone tired to go home earlier.
会议结束后，每个人都想早点回家。
He came into the room, his ears red with cold.
他回到了房子里，耳朵冻坏了。
He came out of the library, a large book under his arm.
他夹着本厚书，走出了图书馆
2 With的复合结构作独立主格
表伴随时，既可用分词的独立结构，也可用with的复合结构。
with +名词(代词)+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/不定式/介词短语
举例: He stood there, his hand raised.
= He stood there, with his hand raise.
典型例题
The murder was brought in, with his hands ___ behind his back。
A. being tied B. having tied C. to be tied D. tied
答案D. with +名词（代词）+分词+介词短语结构。当分词表示伴随状况时，其主语常常用with来引导。由于本句中名词"手"与分词"绑"是被动关系，因此用过去分词，选D.
注意:
1) 独立主格结构使用介词的问题：
当介词是in时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制
A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.
( hand前不能加his)。
2) 当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分 词，不及物动词用过去分词。
He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up. 呼，撅死我了，自己先来刮地皮
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